Evaluating Life Cycle of Pavements

Evaluating Life Cycle of Pavements Case Study from Nevada Department of Transportations Perspective Nowadays increasing number of agencies and companies have started to shift to the principles of sustainability in conducting business and activities. These principles also make good business sense as we try to improve the environmental, social and economic value of a product. The transportation industry is no different and many Departments of Transportation (DOTs) have already shifted to this by incorporating Life Cycle Analysis of pavements. Life cycle analysis of pavements is a comprehensive approach where economic costs of different alternatives during the life of a pavement are evaluated and the best one is chosen to be implemented. It is a complex process and varies from one DOT to another but usually there are some guidelines laid down by the Federal Highway Administration that are followed. For our case study, we have selected the Nevada Department of Transportation, also known as NDOT. This report presents a brief overview of the various components and strategies used in pavement analysis, maintenance and rehabilitation are discussed in detail. NDOT has a defined Pavement Management System to collect data and the application of LCA for construction of pavements has already been started. The various parameters considered in LCA as well as the limitations are discussed in this report. Keywords: Pavement, Life Cycle Analysis, NDOT, Maintenance, Rehabilitation Pavements, like any other thing, have a definite life cycle. They are constructed by keeping a certain period of utility in mind. The continuous use of roadways often leads to their degradation in their serviceability. The rate of this deterioration is dependent on many factors both environmental and load related. Using appropriate maintenance and rehabilitation techniques at the right time also can impact the life of a pavement drastically. The life cycle of pavements can be very broadly described as Stage 1: New Pavement Newly constructed pavements fall into this category. They require almost no repairs while in use. Stage 2: Minor Repairs After some initial time, the utility of the roads begins to decrease. Some maintenance work is favored. Stage 3: Major Repairs After long time in service the roads become deficient structurally and continuous use of roads in this state is not recommended. Stage 4: Complete Reconstruction Roads in this state of disarray are not be used except under extreme circumstances and require a complete overhaul and construction of new pavements. However, some agencies have been lagging in their effort to properly preserve their roadways. This has led to one third of the roads in United States being in poor or weak condition. Annually an estimated of 70 billion dollars to maintain the highway network in USA. This considerable sum has led people to try and manage pavements more efficiently. Constant evaluation of pavements has been adopted by many state DOTs to try and limit pavement deterioration once it is in use. There are two major categories for repairs of pavements in general terms are Maintenance Rehabilitation Maintenance is the process of repair of roads is done on a small scale as the pavements contain only minor faults and are fixed relatively easily. Some common maintenance techniques include fog seals and crack sealing and mainly slow down the deterioration rate of the pavements [1]. Rehabilitation is the procedure where existing portions of damaged pavements are completely redone as the damage is of significance. Rehabilitation techniques include in-place recycling and overlays and reset the whole process of deterioration [1]. The cost of either maintenance or rehabilitation of pavement is substantive and continuous to rise even today. This has lead highway agencies to use tools that can help combine economics and operations research to achieve pavements that are both cost effective without compromising their long-term properties. The most common method in use is the Life Cycle Cost Analysis or the LCCA [2]. It is a process where the value of the total project is calculated using the initial cost and discounted future costs over the life of the pavement. The components of LCCA is defined by different DOTs independently. For this report the case of Nevada DOT is chosen and LCCA used by NDOT will be explained later. The Nevada DOT was founded in 1917 and has since built and maintained almost 5,400 miles of road. There is an additional of more than 46,000 miles of public road mostly maintained by local agencies. The roads maintained by NDOT account only for 20% of roads in Nevada but these roads account for 52% of all traffic and 82% of heavy truck traffic of the state [3]. In the fiscal years of 2013 and 2014, NDOT spend around 270 million dollars on maintenance rehabilitation repair works. As one can infer from the figures the process of maintaining the roadways is costly and therefore NDOT uses various tools that can help to minimize this cost in the long run. Some of these tools are discussed in this report. Connecting the empirical data collected from the field and theoretical data calculated by an engineer in the lab has been one of the most difficult task in pavement engineering. Long term pavement performance has gained importance as it is a major component of any cost analyses that is conducted on the pavements. Therefore, predicting long term performance of pavements with good accuracy can provide valuable data for pavement modeling. Field data collected from various sites can also be used to verify whether the materials possesses required qualities or the design was sufficient. This can in their turn help in altering future pavement designs to better perform in the field. This has led to the creation of a Pavement Management System by pavement engineers. Data collected from various sites in the field is collected in the PMS and stored for further analysis by engineers. This collected data can be utilized to develop and verify pavement performance models The PMS used by NDOT was established in 1980 and is accordance with ISTEA guidelines. It monitors various pavement characteristics with time on a mile-by-mile basis for the entire NDOT system. The data collected includes cracking, rut depth, patching, surface condition, and ride with data on traffic and accidents are collected for informational purposes only. Using the data collected from the field seven performance indicators are calculated to classify pavements into four repair categories. The performance indicators calculated are Ride Rut Depth Cracking Patching Bleeding Raveling Present Serviceability Index (PSI) The PSI used by NDOT is calculated by the following formula PSI = 5*e-0.0041*IRI 1.38RD2 0.01(C+P)0.5 Where IRI = International Roughness Index (in/mile) RD = Rut Depth (in) C = Cracking Area (ft2/1000 ft2) P = Patching Area (ft2/1000 ft2) For the considered pavement points are assigned for the severity and extent of each of the distress indicators. The total summation of the points is used to assign the pavement into one of four repair categories which are Do Nothing Maintenance Overlay Reconstruction For details refer to Development of Pavement Performance, Analyses and Procedures [4]. The PSI of pavements is kept in check by performing routine maintenance and rehabilitation activities. As explained maintenance as a process only slows down the rate of deterioration while on the other hand rehabilitation will show an initial change in PSI and may also change the rate of deterioration of pavement. Generally, one observes that the cost of maintenance of pavement tends to be lower than the cost of rehabilitation. Therefore, if one has to be cost effective there needs to be a balance between the maintenance and rehabilitation of pavements. That is using only one type of repair work will be more economically inefficient. NDOT has chosen specific repair activities to catalog in the state of Nevada based on availability of previous data. If a technique was chosen without sufficient performance data, then the model would be of limited use only. The techniques thus used by NDOT include Maintenance Techniques: Rehabilitation Techniques: Sand Seals, Chips Seals. Flexible Overlays, Roadbed Modification, Mill and Overlays Sand Seals Sand seal is the application of an asphalt emulsion being sprayed on with a layer of clean sand or fine aggregate being embedded in the emulsion either by spreading immediately or using a pneumatic tire roller. After application of the tire-roller excess particles are removed from the pavement. The sand seals are useful for improving the surface properties of pavements and can also help in filling up any fine cracks of pavement surface. In addition, the sand can also improve the skid resistant properties of the road while reducing the chances of raveling. [5]. Chip Seals Chip seals have become one of the most used surface treatment technique for roads with less traffic. Similar to a sand seal, a chip seal is the process of spraying asphalt and applying a layer of aggregate over it. The asphalt applied could be in form of hot asphalt cement, cutback or emulsified asphalt. After the application of any of the listed types of asphalt aggregate layer is administers onto the surface, before the asphalt either cools down or the emulsion breaks so as to maximize adhesion. The aggregates in the asphalt matrix are further seated and reoriented using a pneumatic roller. Afterwards the excess aggregates are removed from the surface by use of brooming. Chip seals are used as a protection from further raveling as well as seal any small cracks that are in the pavement. Sometimes use of lightweight aggregates is justified in chip seals in cases where heavier aggregates might become a cause for windshield cracking. LWA are manufactured mainly from light minerals like shale, slate or clay and are usually more expensive and less durable than normal aggregates but these are much lighter in weight. This light weight prevents these aggregates from being able to crack windshields in the case they become projectiles. The cracking of windshields can also be prevented by use of polymer modified emulsion [5]. Flexible Overlays Flexible overlay is a method of rehabilitation wherein on top of the old structure a new intermediate layer is constructed. The major purpose of this new layer is to both add an additional structure to the pavement and to prevent the proliferation of reflective cracks from the structure underneath. The old structure can still provide a uniform support. The design and planning of the overlay should be done keeping into consideration the expected traffic loading that the pavement will be under. As such this technique usually causes an increase in the highway profile. Care also has to be taken to prevent moisture from getting between the overlay and old structure. To prevent this the materials uses in the overlay should be tested for both moisture susceptibility and durability [6]. Roadbed Modification Asphalt roads are also reclaimed using roadbed modification. This technique is usually applied to pavements where the PSI has fallen way below desired level. Pulverization of existing pavement is done to a depth depending upon the structure of the old pavement. The pulverization process sometimes also includes base materials sometimes if the depth of pulverization is greater than the bituminous layer. On the other hand, if the depth is lower than that of existing structure then use of cold milling can be beneficial as this will lead to minimal disturbance to the materials underneath. The materials pulverized is then mixed with cement and water, where it acts basically as aggregates. This concrete is spread out and compacted according to the design intended. Pavements with very weak or uneven foundations can benefit from this technique [7]. Mill and Overlays The mill and overlay method is a method of rehabilitation where the top surface of the damaged pavement is removed, usually up to 2 inches. This removal is done by the use of a milling machine capable to perform the task. The removal of the top layer comprises of the milling portion of the method and usually takes around a couple of days. Afterwards a new layer of bituminous layer is constructed on top of the structure, in place of the removed surface. The surface of the milled pavement is coated with liquid asphalt that acts as a tack coat between the old structure and the new bituminous layer. The construction of the overlay can take around one to two days depending upon the width of pavement and the traffic. The asphalt overlay to be placed on pavement is usually embedded to a depth of 1ÂÂ ½ using a paver [8]. When developing NDOTs pavement performance model three categories of data were considered Structural, Environmental and PMS. A list of factors from these categories was created that could possibly affect pavement performance was compiled into standard data collection form. Analyzing all the standardized data the following data sets were finally used when developing the model- Materials data of activity being modeled: These data include the types and percentages of asphalt binder and aggregates used in the maintenance or rehabilitation activity for which the performance model is being developed. Materials data of existing pavement layers: These data include the types and percentages of asphalt binder and aggregates used in the layers underlaying the maintenance or rehabilitation activity for which the performance model is being developed. Structural data: These data include the thickness of the various layers in the pavement structure including the thickness of the maintenance or rehabilitation activity that is being modeled. The structural number (SN) as defined by the AASHTO design guide was used to normalize the structural data among all of the pavement section. Reference 3 describes the method used to convert the layer thicknesses into SN values. Pavement performance data: These data include the PSI, percent cracking, and average rut depth values as obtained from the NDOT PMS data base. Traffic data: The equivalent single axle load (ESAL) was used as the traffic element. The average daily ESAL figures were obtained from the PMS data base and used to obtain the cumulative ESALs over the life of the maintenance or rehabilitation activity. Environmental data: These data include maximum and minimum temperatures, number of freeze/thaw cycles, number of wet days, and annual precipitation. LCCA is a tool that is used by NDOT to evaluate the economic assessment of pavements when considering the entirety of its useful life. It takes into consideration the initial costs as well as maintenance and repair cost that the pavement is likely to undergo in its life. This tool can be used by pavement engineers to optimize their budget to improve the overall useful life of the pavement. Different alternatives for repairs are considered and the one with the most utility or least cost is chosen to be put forward for consideration. LCCA is made from the following steps- All initial treatment alternatives must be identified For each alternative, their analysis period as well as treatment scheme should be determined The price of annual and each alternatives maintenance should be computed The economic assessment calculated for each alternative should be compared The alternative with the best economic assessment should be selected based on LCCA When performing LCCA, NDOT uses the AASHTO prescribed Present Worth method. This method is highly recommended and frequently used by state highway agencies. In this method, any future expense is converted to present value of the dollar. The present value of future expenses is the amount of money which will need to be invested at a particular compound interest rate for the total sum to be equal to the value of the future expense. The formula used in calculation is PW = F(1/(1+i) n) Where F = The future expense after n years i = Discount rate n = Number of years Since the costs of production keeps on changing with time due to inflation and other economic factors, a discount rate is chosen to compare the cost across all time periods. LCCA is performed on the pavement for a specific analyses period. The length of this analyses period has been calculated for various types of roads keeping important factors into consideration. Highway Class Analysis Period (Years) High Volume Urban 30 50 High Volume Rural 20 50 Low Volume Paved 15 25 Low Volume Aggregate Surface 10 20 For newly constructed flexible pavements NDOT recommends an analysis period of 25-40 years while for rehabilitation they recommended a period of 20 years. This data is derived from two major conditions, (a) It represents a realistic life of asphalt mixtures and (b) one or two rehabilitation periods are included in the period. Pavements have a defined life cycle. Regular repair work must be done during the useful life of a pavement to maintain it to a serviceable level. NDOT uses PSI as an indicator to determine the serviceability level of pavement. PSI can range from 0 to 5.0 and repair is done on a pavement when the PSI drops below an unacceptable level. NDOT uses 2.5 as the terminal level of PSI with roads having average daily traffic of more than 750. NDOT also has placed some reality checks in place for calculating the pavement performance period. They are not considered in when in performance models because they can act as an empirical check to the values obtained from theoretical models. These checks include data such as traffic accidents, high maintenance costs, specific site failures, etc. LCAA also include cost factors that encompass all the expenditure that is incurred by the pavement from the design phase till the end of its useful life cycle. These costs have to be properly compared for different alternatives in LCCA to arrive at the most economic pavement. These costs can include First Costs: These include both the expenditure for the initial construction of the pavement and the cost for the operations that occurred to facilitate the construction like surveys, designs and analyses. Annual Maintenance Costs: These include the expenditure that is use to maintain an optimum PSI level of the pavement so as to provide a smooth ride to the drivers. Road User Costs: These are the costs that are associated with driving on the road and include things like increase in travel time, accidents, change in fuel consumption by vehicle etc. Salvage Value: This is the value of the road at the end of its life cycle. These casts can be either positive or negative depending on the condition of the road. 1. Pavement Interactive 2. Evaluation of pavement life cycle cost analysis: Review and analysis 3. State Highway Preservation Report 4. Development of Pavement Performance, Analyses and Procedures 5. https://www.fs.fed.us/eng/pubs/html/99771201/99771201.htm 6.http://onlinemanuals.txdot.gov/txdotmanuals/pdm/flexible_base_overlay_and_flexible_base_thickening.htm 7. https://www.nevadadot.com/uploadedFiles/NDOT/About_NDOT/NDOT_Divisions/Operations/Construction/CM%20Section%206%20-%20300.pdf 8. https://www.stpaul.gov/departments/public-works/street-maintenance/mill-overlay

Are Genetics Responsible for Allergies? :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Are Genetics Responsible for Allergies? A Study In Identical Twins Everyone has either suffered from some kind of allergy, or knows somebody who has suffered from allergies. Allergies are the source of irritating symptoms, ranging from a painless skin rash to life-threatening breathing problems. For years, researchers have been trying to find out the source of these allergies. Some have suggested that environmental factors or early exposure to certain foods can cause allergies later in life, while others say that allergies are caused by genetics. To test the latter theory, many researchers study identical twins to see if sets of twins share allergies. If both twins were to share a particular allergy, than this may prove that allergies are genetic. To completely understand the remainder of this essay, one must understand the difference between identical twins and fraternal twins. Twin zygosity is the genetic relationship of twins. There are two types of twins: monozygotic twins, also known as identical twins, and dizygotic twins, also known as fraternal twins. Identical twins have exactly identical DNA strands; they are same sex and they have very similar physical traits. They come from one egg that is fertilized by one sperm. Some time after conception, the egg splits resulting in two babies. Fraternal twins only have half identical DNA; that is, only one strand of the double-stranded DNA is the same. They come from two individual eggs that are fertilized by two individual sperms. They are either same sex or different sex, and are just like siblings of same parents born at different times. There are other kinds of twins as well; for example, "mirror-image twins," "polar body twins," and "half-identical twins." These names refe r to the time that the egg splits in identical twins. This essay, however, will deal with only identical and fraternal twins (5). The question now is, Are identical twins allergic to the same things? Since identical twins have exactly identical DNA, the sharing of allergies can shed some light on the role of genetics in allergies. All sorts of food allergies affect eight percent of children and two percent of adults in the United States. Allergic reactions happen because one's immune system overreacts to regular foods that are ordinarily harmless to the general population (7). An allergy affecting many children and adults recently in the United States is an allergy to peanuts. In the last few years, tremendous amounts of people have developed this allergy, which seems, in most cases, to be very severe.

Pip and Magwitch Essay

Throughout the novel Great Expectations the reader will find that Magwitch plays a significant role to the plot of story. Not only does Dickens use Magwitch to form the main foundation of the story he also uses the character to convey Dickens’s view on important themes such as crime, punishment, social status and betrayal. In this presentation I will explore the ways in which Magwitch is presented and talk about and his significance in the novel. We are first introduced to Magwitch in chapter one. The reader becomes familiar with the character Pip; we learn he is a child who is alone in the graveyard and is mourning over the death of his family. The reader knows that not only would this upset Pip, it could make him feel frightened because as a child you are dependant on your family members to keep you safe. He makes it sound as if Pip was recalling what it felt like to be a child, like when we get the impression that he could have been exaggerating about wilderness and so on before him. An image is described, such as ‘the low leaden line beyond’ and this then is revealed as what it actually is; the river. This gives the effect that not only Pip is confused and lost by his surroundings but also and therefore scared and intimidated by them. Dickens delivers Pip’s emotions cleverly because there is no direct reference to how he is feeling at first. This is very good building up to the shock of first meeting Magwitch. The writer uses direct speech for his first words, which come out suddenly, at no particular starting point and with impression that they are loud! He says ‘Hold your noise. ‘ which sounds at first so abrupt it could be almost like he is trying to save Pip, that he fears for Pip too. We then read on to see how Magwitch is presented physically. He is wet and muddy, and is described as being stung by nettles, so he obviously does not look after himself properly. He is shivering and limping, so he may be unwell as well as cold. His shoes are broken and he has no hat or proper clothes which shows he cannot afford them. He has a very informal way of speaking, and is eager to see the scrap of food he finds on Pip, so this also shows that he is poor and working class. This could be because, or the results of being a criminal. The first chapter is important; we now know exactly what Magwitch looks like and how he is presented. As mentioned in the introduction, Magwitch is significant in the plot. The fact that he appears in the very first chapter makes us assume he is a main character, even though he does not reappear until later in the book when the reader either has completely forgotten about him or thinks it is very unlikely that he will appear again with the current story line, especially as at the end of chapter three it says ‘the last I ever heard of him. ‘ When he does make his unexpected reappearance in Chapter thirty-nine, he reveals news that causes him to become the centre of almost every aspect of the story line. By the end of Chapter fifty-four and when mysteries are revealed and loose ends tied we come to realise that Magwitch is somehow connected to every character. Pip, obviously because of the money he gives that cause him to become wealthy and middle-class. His lost past with Molly and Estella, his daughter, who was adopted by Miss Haversham. Also he is connected to Joe because it was his whittles and file he used to set him free. Perhaps he is connected to Mrs Joe because he murdered her. When Magwitch dies during chapter fifty-six, it impacts the plot and the characters, especially Pip. Magwitch influences other characters, especially Pip and sometimes they influence him too. Had it not been for Magwitch the way people behaved may have been very different! We do not know much about Pip before he meets Magwitch, but afterwards we find him to be cautious, for example how nervous he was when he meets Miss Haversham. This could have been a lasting effect from his fears upon first meeting Magwitch. Pip may have been so shocked by the way that the poor lived that he becomes even more determined to become a gentleman. It gave him an insight to the lives of the very poor. In chapter three Magwitch seems to wait all night just for the food Pip has brought him. Pip may have recognised his determination and perhaps used this will when he is seeking Estella as his wife later during the book. Magwitch may have been so grateful towards Pip that it made him feel like he should try and become a better person. Both Pip and Magwitch taught each other that you should not always be judgmental. For Pip, it was that he was at first very afraid of Magwitch and thought he was going to be scary. Later on he realises that he only was behaving in a threatening way because he was hungry and desperate for food.

What is Citizenship - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2337 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2019/04/12 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Citizenship Essay Did you like this example? Citizenship is a concept that is difficult to universally define; it is recognized as a form of identity, representing the culture, heritage, and traditions one is born into. However, some countries today permit people to become citizens of that respective country as long as they meet the requirements and follow the regulations needed to achieve citizenship. This process is known as naturalization. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "What is Citizenship?" essay for you Create order Some would argue that naturalization should be removed as an option to obtain citizenship of a country, due to people being allowed to have more than one citizenship and abusing dual citizenship rights. Though there is always the underlying negativity of this, naturalization and the ability to possess more than one citizenship simultaneously should remain allowed. It is because of this privilege, that people are able to travel the world and have the opportunity to live in more than one country. Possessing the legal right of citizenship in more than a single country is a significant part of many individuals lives. Dual citizenship encompasses and promotes diversity, a key aspect in what has shaped Canada and many other countries- and should continue to be permitted on a national scale. Citizenship is not a modern idea, despite being heavily transformed and shifted in the modern era. In fact, it dates back to the Ancient Greece era of the Romans and Spartans. In the early eighth century BCE, people participating in the military in Spartan villages were rewarded with rights, privileges and political power over their community. In Ancient Greece, it was impossible to obtain citizenship unless one belonged to a town-dwelling tribe. Skipping forward two centuries to the era of Athens in the sixth century BCE. There seemed to be a lot of foreigners coming into Athens for the chance of better lives from their foreign countries; these foreign residents were given the name Metics. Although these Metics made great contributions to the Athenian society, they were not regarded as citizens, meaning they could not participate in any political activities that normal citizens of Athens could. The natives of Athens were looked at as higher beings with a greater sense of belonging than the Metics. This concept of citizenship bred subsequent examples to follow this protocol, as immigrants were excluded from citizenship rights. Opposing Ancient Greeces conc ept of citizenship, in the middle ages era from fifth to fifteenth century CE, the feudal system was the cornerstone of everything political in European cities. The feudal system and migration went hand in hand, citizens were visiting other cities they have never been to. Foreign trade was prominent in the medieval ages; foreign merchants were frequently moving from kingdom to kingdom to sell goods and from this, migration started to become a common occurrence. Due to this common theme of travel, the Magna Carta an English charter crafted in the thirteenth century, allowed foreign merchants to stay within the English kingdom and get transported to safety. Although there was a lot of leniencies regarding the permission of merchants being able to roam through Europe freely in the medieval ages, there was no official way of regulating immigration and naturalization. Citizenship was determined by the land one had possession over; this land was normally passed on from older generations. The social hierarchy, with strict regulations of the purchase of land made naturalization and permanent foreign residence very rare. However, this did not prevent foreigners from buying land, paying their taxes and being recognized as citizens that were a part of what woul d later be called a nation-state. Citizenship is tied directly to the idea of an average nation-state. Becoming a citizen is to become a participant in a nations political affairs with a political community; in the sixteenth century, Europe saw the rise of nation-states. During this time, monarchy systems ruled over nations like Britain, France, and Spain. Nation-states were much more diverse in ethnicity and linguistics than surrounding cities. This is what instigated the nation-states the set up of processing rules for naturalization. In England, the General Naturalizations Act of 1709 was passed, allowing children born of immigrant parents in England to gain citizenship. These English-born citizens of immigrants, referred to as Denizens did not have all the rights a citizen born from an English family would have: Denizens rights to property and to inherit money were restricted. Colonial expansion started becoming more popular at the time, so England introduced a second-class of citizens for the children born of immigrant parents. The immigrant parents of Denizens were not looked at as citizens, so they gained even fewer rights. Even though Europe had made attempts to aid immigrants with thanks to global colonization, it was still proven very difficult to gain the privilege of citizenship. This was Europes concept of citizenship, but that did not account for other ideas of citizenship across nations. The United States was forming as a country and was constructing its own concept of citizenship, regardless of Europ es idea was at the time. Since the United States was its own sovereign nation in the 1780s, there were lots of people that banded together to create this great nation. Although each citizen had their place to fit in the political community, a majority of citizens felt closer with their primary states of origin than the United States as a whole. America also did not have a Constitution set up, which made it difficult to determine the magnitude of federal and state power. Thus, state governments assumed the role of federal powers in taking initiative in recognizing and acknowledging immigrants and naturalization by creating guidelines. Due to Americas fragile economy, state governments monitored and restricted poor migrants from foreign nations entering their territory. The state of Georgia expanded on this, creating an act that made all poor migrants entering the state obtain an occupation. New York did something similar, by creating an act that required lower class migrants to bring a legitimate proof of their occupation. However, the United States welcomed rich upper-class migrants that brought great assets to their country with open arms. It could be argued that the United States still holds this principle to this day; welcoming upper-class migrants and regulating the lower-class migrants (Donald Trump and the Mexicans). These policies reflect the economys influence on the concept of citizenship and how the class someone belongs to can influence whether or not one is permitted entrance into another country. The United States recognized that it was time for a change, so the state governments transitioned their power of immigration to the federal government. In 1789, the immigration and naturalization policies were now under the control of the federal government. The federal government swiftly took action and instilled the Naturalization Act of 1790. This act shifted the attention from social economic class to ethnicity. Instead of regulating migrants based on the social class, migrants were now regulated based on skin color. If someone lived in the United States for over two years, they could be declared a citizen as long as they were white. This act was released during the time slavery was still legal, hence the elevated amount of prejudice against those of lower class or contrasting ethnicities. Women were also excluded based on gender alone, leaving the average white male as the sole part of the population with the opportunity to obtain a citizenship in the United States of America. The Naturalization Act existed and influenced the power structure, leading up until the twentieth century. With large numbers of people moving from plac e to place, having citizenship in more than one place was quite common: this occurrence is called dual citizenship. Each nation has its own set of rules to regulate who is a citizen, who can become a citizen and who may remain a citizen. Once one is considered a citizen, there are three main principles to fall under: jus soli, jus sanguinis, and jus domicile. Jus soli from Latin, directly means right of soil, meaning if a persons parents possess citizenship in a specific country, most countries would allow them to obtain citizenship as well for that same country. Subsequently, jus sanguinis is also from Latin, directly translating to right of blood, meaning if someone were to be born in a country, they normally have the right to gain citizenship. Lastly, jus domicile, right of residence directly links citizenship to permanent residence. These principles are all factors that contribute to the facilitation of obtaining dual citizenship. While there are two principles regarding citizenship, there are two different perspectives towards it. Citizenship is often broken down into two contrasting ideas: the Liberal-Individualist conception and Civic-Republican conception, both formed around the seventeenth and eighteenth century. The Liberal Individualist conception revolves around maintaining dignity and fulfilling ones duties as a member of society. This point of view supports the belief that citizens act in the services for their own self-interest and benefit. People live with certain obligations to meet; paying taxes, obeying the law, engaging in trades with other persons and defending the nation if necessary, being only a few. However, citizens are to remain politically passive and focus on improving the economy. This goal of this perspective according to its own traits, is to protect and preserve the rights of citizens. While the liberal perspective focuses on fulfilling ones own economic duties, the Republican perspective focuses on bettering ones own political self-image. The Civic-Republican concept sees citizenship as an ongoing process, rather than a passive state of being. This view is concerned about government intervention that the government will take charge of most public organizations. With all the information on the concept of citizenship this paper has provided, dual citizenship is now an easier topic to dissect. This, in turn, makes it easier to draw a conclusion as to whether or not a person should be able to hold more than one citizenship simultaneously. Dual citizenship is the occurrence when one possesses more than one citizenship to a country. Countries like Canada, United States, and United Kingdom permit this, meanwhile, others like India and Singapore do not. This controversial status has privileges, but when put into the wrong hands, these privileges can be exploited. Some of these exploitations include birth tourism and the right of return, which can have an affect on immigration rates. Birth tourism is a common exploitation taken advantage of by women. This is the act of a pregnant women travelling to a foreign country in order to g ive birth to for personal gain. Subsequently, the right of return defines that if one were to get banned from being in one country, they have the right to go back to another. These exploits fuel the fire of outrage amongst the political community regarding dual citizenship. As a dual citizen, one must fulfill the duties each country requires them to. An example of this is double taxation: if someone has a citizenship in the United States and is working in another country. For instance, the United States has the right to tax the income that a person makes in that country and send it back to America. However, the United States has made agreements with other countries such as New Zealand, negating this issue of double taxation. Another drawback of dual citizenship is the dual obligations one must meet. If one has a citizenship in a country that requires military service, they can lose entitlement of their citizenship. Security clearance is another common negative fact of dual citizenship. If one seeks a governmental position, this can be difficult if one does not have a citizenship for that country, exclusively. Although it may be easier for those born into dual citizenship rather than those who have applied for it later in life, dual citizenship can still be a very complicated and expensive process. In order to achieve citizenship in the United States, one would need to apply for permanent residency and live in America for at least 5 years. Permanent residency is expensive to obtain; also considering the fees if one hires an immigration lawyer to try and facilitate the process. While dual citizenship is quite a convoluted and exploitable status, it is worth possessing. With dual citizenship, there are many benefits and privileges to reap. One with dual citizenship has the ability to vote in either country and depending on the laws and regulations of each country, have the chance of running for office. It is possible to get an education in both countries, without the having to pay the additional cost of tuition that one would normally have to when considered an international student. As some countries restrict land ownership to citizens only, it is now possible to obtain land ownership in more than one country; one also has the benefits of having two passports, making it easier to enter each country and guarantees the right of entry. Nations are destined to be different and diverse from each other; but mixing different cultures will facilitate in helping those of different countries understand the another, thereby making our world a place of richer community. Dual citizenship as a legal right, is something that affects a good portion of many peoples daily lives. Each different country of the world is diverse in its own way and one would be at an advantage to be able to say that they belong to two separate countries. Having multiple citizenships provides opportune moments to showcase the different cultures, traditions and experiences one has been exposed to. After thorough examination of the history of citizenship, it can be concluded that a globally accepted view of the concept of citizenship is difficult to achieve. Keeping this in mind, citizenship seems to be taking a positive step in the right direction, as racist and sexist obligations have been removed from most countries. Dual citizenship is a factor that plays a huge role in ones identity; an aspect that is major in any individuals life, shaping the way that one perceives oneself. Removing this opportunity would affect the factors of freedom and individuality that shape each and e very persons unique identity.